Aristotle
“Aristotle was the unimpeachable authority on every science and art known to his day.” (Maxey)
Aristotle was born in 384 BC. His father was Physician. He studied in Plato’s Academy for about 17 years. He was attached to Plato’s Academy for two reasons:
1.It was the cradle of education in Greece for advanced studies.
2.He was so much influenced by Plato’ teaching.
He served as tutor of Alexander the Great in 343 BC and kept his school in the Lyceum for 12 years. After the death of Alexander the Great, the Athenians revolted and prosecuted the accused persons of whom Aristotle was one of the many. He was charged for impiety but he fled to avoid punishment.
During the middle Ages, he was simply considered “the Philosopher”. The recovery of his manuscripts in the thirteenth century marks a turning point in the history of philosophy. According toDunning, “the capital significance of Aristotle in the history of political theories lies in the fact that he gave to politics the character of an independent science.”
He is founder of science of logic. His monumental treatise “Politics” is the most valuable works on Political Science. The “Politics” is a chief work on the science and art of Government giving full justification for existing of the institution like the state, slavery and family is calculated to suggest the remedies for the ill of the body-politic of the city-state. Though it is generally said that “Politics” is an unfinished treatise and often obscure but the half understood words of Aristotle have become laws of thoughts to other ages.
Zeller says, “Politics of Aristotle is the richest treasure that has come down to us from antiquity, it is the greatest contribution to the field of political science that we possess.”
Aristotle as Father of Political Science
The title of fatherhood of Political Science bestowed upon Aristotle is not without justification. He was brought up in the order of medicine as his father was a physician of the king of Macedonia. Since his childhood he got every opportunity and encouragement to develop a scientific bent of mind. Instead of turning towards literature like his great master Plato, he built the terminology of science and philosophy.
In the words of Renan, “Socrates gave philosophy to mankind and Aristotle gave science to it.”
Aristotle gives us definite and clear-cut dogmas, instead of groping in illusions and imaginations. He does not believe in abstract notions of justice and virtue, but has a concrete approach. He discarded utopian philosophy of Plato and advocated logical and scientific theories based upon realism. Aristotle supported the principle of unity through diversity. He was of the view that reality lay in the concrete manifestation of things. He separated ethics from politics.
We can say that Aristotle laid the foundation of a real political science by his keen and practical political approach and systematic treatment of the subject. He may be called the “Scientist of Politics” because of his empirical study. He collected his data with care and minuteness, clarifies and defines it and draws logical conclusions which deserve nothing but admiration and praise.
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Aristotle’s Views on Origin of State
“Man is a political animal, destined by nature for state life.”
“State exists for the sake of good life and not for the sake of life only.” (Aristotle)
Aristotle was of the view that the origin of the state is present in the inherent desire of man to satisfy his economic needs and racial instincts. The family is formed by male and female on the one hand and master and slave on the other hand. Then they work for achievement of their desires. They live together and form a such family in household which has its moral and social unity and value.
Aristotle said, “Family is the association established by nature for the supply of man’s everyday wants. But when several families are united and the association aims at something more than the supply of daily need, then come into existence the village. When several villages are united in a single community, perfect and large enough to be quite self-sufficing, the state comes into existence, originating in the bare needs of life and continuing in existence for the sake of good life.”
Three elements are essential to build the state on perfect lines i.e., fellowship, practical organization and justice. A man without state is either a beast or a God. According to Aristotle, “he who by nature and not be mere accident is without a state is either above humanity or below it, he is tribe-less, lawless and heartless one.”
The family is natural and inborn instinct, similarly the state is also natural for individuals. Baker said, “The state is the natural home of the fully grown and natural man. It is an institution for the moral perfection of man to which his whole nature moves.”
Aristotle was of the view that state is a “Political Koimonia”, an association which represents a functional unity of varied and reciprocal parts made by the pursuit of a common aim in which their nature, their habits and their training lead them all to join. Maclwain said, “The state is a kind of Koimonia which is a supreme over all others, and embraces them all.” State is an association of human being and the highest form of association existing for the sake of perfect and healthier life.
Functions of the State
1.The state is not merely an association of associations but it is a highest natural association for pursuits of spiritual class of common life of virtue.
2.The state is based on the element of justice
3.It also aims at the highest good of the community for its proper realization of demands and needs in it.
4.The state functions to ensure a perfect and self-sufficing life of all its components members.
5.The state also ensures to fulfill all the natural needs of its members and to provide opportunities to the individuals for the attainment of moral, intellectual and physical excellence.
6.According to Aristotle, “Man is essentially good and the function of the state is to develop his good faculties into a habit of good actions.”
Rule of Law
Aristotle believed in natural laws but not the natural rights. The absence of law is the negation of good laws and this meant lack of constitutional laws. Law was superior to the Government because it checked the latter's irregularities. Rule by law was better than personal rule because law had as impersonal quality which the rules lacked.
Sabine paid tribute to Aristotle in these words, “the supremacy of law is accepted by Aristotle as a mark of a good state and not merely as an unfortunate necessity.”
Justice means that every citizen in the state should abide by the dictates of law and fulfill its moral obligation towards community members. According to Aristotle there should be two kind of justice:
1.Distributive Justice
It is mainly concerned with voluntary commercial transaction like sale, hire, furnishing of security, acquisition of property etc.
2.Corrective Justice
It deals with proper allocation to each person according to his capacity and worth.
Aristotle emphasis that reward and honors should not be offered to the virtuous few but to others as who collectively contribute in the welfare of the state and should be proportionately rewarded.
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Theory of Revolution
Decay and disturbance in political life brought crucial changes in the Governments of the city-state in Greece, made Aristotle to contemplate deeply and to stress the causes of the Revolution and its remedies. Aristotle’s theory is divided into two parts:
1.First part is a practical manual of conduct advising democrats, aristocrats, monarchs and oligarchs and even tyrants as how to keep themselves in power.
2.Second part is a treatise on the philosophical basis of the good and stable governments.
What is Revolution?
To Aristotle, if any change occurs in the existing system or constitution of the state, it means revolution. For example, if in the state the constitution has changed from monarchy to democracy, it is a revolution. Aristotle was of the view that if the constitution remains the same, but the ruling party has been transferred from one man to another, it is also a revolution.
General Causes of Revolution:
1.The main feature of revolution is to be the craving of men for equality. Equality has two characters-absolute and proportional. The proletariat are passionate to secure absolute equality for the availability of the same rights that are possessed by few. The few struggle for proportional equality for perpetual upgrading superiority in power and privilege.
2.Strong desire for justice becomes another feature of revolution. Aristotle was of the view that men turn to revolution when they think they have not got their dues.
Particular Causes of Revolution:
1. Desire for gain and profit.
2. Universal desire for honor and prestige
3. The possession of sovereign power by an individual or group so as to create fear and apprehension in the minds of the subject
4. Undue priority and prominence of individuals caused great stir in the heart of the subdued people
5. Disproportionate increase of power and wealth in any part of the state
6. Elections intrigues and moral degradation kept up in the selection of some people
7. Carelessness shown in granting public offices to disloyal citizens and undue favoritism shown to the individuals
8. Too much power concentrated in one man or class of men for political gains
9. Dissimilarity of different elements in the state
10. The rivalries of people of different races in the state
11. Dynastic quarrels and conflicts
12. Free immigration of outside races with different notions of justice and law
Revolutions in Particular kind of State:
1.Democracy
In democracies, revolutions are led by the dogmatic policies of demagogues in attacking the rich.
2.Tyranny or Oligarchy
In oligarchies, revolutions take place due to two reasons:
a)Oppressive or Totalitarian rule
b)Rivalry among the ruling dictators
3.Aristocracy
In aristocracies, revolution held to the policy of narrowing down the circle of the Government. Aristocracy tends to become oliogarchy, through the undue encroachment of the richer classes polity to become democracy, through the undue aspiration of the poorer class. According to Dunning “Stability can be maintained only by proportionate equality and by giving to each his own.” Aristotle was of the view that democracy is more secure and stable than oligarchy.
Remedies for Revolution:
1.Abundant political power should not be concentrated in the hands of one man or one class of men.
2.The various classes in the state without any discrimination of color and creed should be treated alike and with proper consideration
3.Honors and rewards should be distributed as fairly as possible only to deserving ones because inequalities of offices and honors drive men to revolt.
4.Political offices should be within reach of every individual who is able of performing his functions best.
5.The Government should be so vigilantly organized that the political office-holders cannot make money out of their offices. Bribes and other kinds of illegal gratification should be made quite impossible to accept.
6.A Government would gain popularity and political stability if it so arranges things that the internal details of the administration, particularly the administration of public finances is open to public scrutiny.
7.Proper education should be imparted to the citizens in the spirit of constitution.
8.Political stability and internal solidarity can be gained by maintaining proportionate equality.
9.The habit of obedience and submission to law should be instilled. Lawlessness and anarchy should not be allowed to creep in even in small and trifling matter.
10.In oligarchy and aristocracy, the inferior class must be well treated and the principles of democratic equality must be followed among the privileged classes. In democracy, the poor and the rich should be encouraged to take part in the state administration which does not affect the sovereign power.
Aristotle also suggested various methods in making oligarchies and tyrannies-stable which are to be followed by a tyrant.
a)A tyrant must employ spies particularly females to trace out disloyal persons to gallows the concerned.
b)He should follow an aggressive policy abroad
c)He should always warn people about constant fear of invasion from outside
d)He should keep the people busy and never allow them to remain in vertigo and lethargy.
e)He must extend enthusiasm in religion
f)He should punish the guilty so that crimes must be ended for the peaceful order in the state.
g)He should increase the material well-being of the citizens.
h)He should perish the intellectual life of the citizens to perish revolutionary tendencies.
i) He should adorn his city and must work for its glory
j)He must have respect for the good.
Aristotle put the security of the state above everything else. He even permitted interference in the privacy of individual’s life when necessary in the interests of the state. According to Aristotle“A revolution constitutes more a political than a legal change. It had the effect of reversing ethical, social and economic standard."
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Practice Questions
1. The Greek city-states considered Macedonia a mere bunch of "barbarians" because
2. Aristotle, upon his return to Athens in 335 B.C.E., opened a school for the Athenians called
3. For Aristotle, the greatest tragedy imaginable for human beings is
4. Which of the following is true about Aristotle's view of human beings?
5. Which of the followings is true about Aristotle's conception of the development of moral virtue?
6. Aristotle's most famous pupil was
7. In Aristotle's four-part division of the soul, the part that deliberates over which actions are to be performed in specific circumstances is
8. Aristotle declares that the highest goal of human life, in which the happiest human being is engaged, is
9. For Aristotle, practical morality - the ability to seek the "Golden Mean" between excess and deficiency - has what character?
10. Teleology is a key concept for Aristotle, the dominating concept of his entire philosophical system. What is teleology?
11. Although Aristotle began by following Plato's teachings, he eventually came to believe that true philosophy is empirically grounded, i.e., based on observation of this-worldly experience.
12. Aristotle's view of human happiness does not include a place for pleasure.
13. Aristotle believed that only humans possess an entelechy, or a goal-oriented mechanism of self-actualization.
14. Aristotle defined the function of man as "an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue".
15. According to Aristotle, so-called "material needs" and "moral luck" are not relevant to achieving true blessedness and happiness.
Here are some short answer questions you might consider.
16. What is the essential difference between Aristotle's teleology and Darwin's theory of evolution?
17. What are, according to Aristotle, external or material goods required for one to achieve happiness?
18. What is Aristotle's major objection to Plato's metaphysics?
19. What is the relation between practical and speculative wisdom?
20. What are the characteristics of Aristotle's "great-souled" man?
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Plato
Plato
Introduction
Plato was born in Athens in 427 BC when the civilization of ancient Greece was at the zenith of glory and eminence. He belonged to royal blood of aristocracy, from his mother’s side he was related to Solan, the law giver. He made efforts to discover the eternal principles of human conduct i-e justice, temperance and courage which alone imbibed the happiness to the individual and stability to the states. In 399 BC, the turning point came in the life of Plato, the defeat of Athens by Sparta made him to despise democracy.
He wandered abroad for twelve years in Persia, Egypt, Africa, Italy and Sicily in the hours of disillusionment, absorbing wisdom from every source and tasting every creedal dogma. Then he returned to Athens and opened an academy. He wrote about 36 treaties all in the form of dialogues. His academy became the best school in Athens.
Work of Plato
“The Republic” is the most important and authentic work of Plato. It was about political philosophy, ethics, education and metaphysics.
Other works of Plato include: “The Politicus”, “The Apology”, “The Meno”, “The Protagoras”, “The Gorgias”, and “The Critias”.
The Republic and Plato
“The true romance of the Republic is the romance of free intelligence, unbound by custom, untrained indeed by human stupidity and self will, able to direct the forces, even of customs and stupidity themselves along the road to a national life.” (Prof. Sabine)
The Republic is an excellent product of Plato’s maturity. It is a major contribution to political philosophy, education, economics, moral aspects of life and metaphysics.
Plato’s Republic known as “Respublica” in Latin is translated from Greek word “Politeia or Polity” which means a political constitution in general. It is an achievement of comprehension, perfection and universality of thought. It presents a picture not of any existing state in Greek but of an ideal state in which weakness of the existing states were to be avoided.
Rousseau said, “The Republic is not a mere work upon politics but the finest treatise on education that ever was written.”
Main feature of the Republic is the virtue of knowledge. Plato was of the view that different classes and individuals had different capacities for the attainment of virtues. The labor class showed the least capacity. Philosophers were the best entitled to rule the state because of their superiority in virtue. Plato considered justice to be the supreme virtue and his ideal state be dwelt with it. We can say that the Republic is his master piece. Plato’s Republic is the crowning achievement of art, science and philosophy.
According to Baker, “The mainspring of the Republic is Plato’s aversion to contemporary Capitalism and his great desire to substitute a new scheme of Socialism.”
Criticism
The Republic contains a good deal of criticism on contemporary institutions, opinions and practices. The Republic represents a strong protest against the teachings of Sophists and the existing social and political corruption.
Plato stresses that state should not be an assembly of corrupt and selfish individuals but be a communion of souls united for the pursuit of justice and truth and also for the welfare of the people.
Plato’s Ideal State
“Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and the power of philosophy and political greatness and wisdom meet in one, cities will never rest from their evils.” (Plato)
The Republic of Plato is interpreted as Utopia to end all Utopias, not because it is a romance, but because he constructed an ideal state in it. He compares the construction of an ideal state with an act of an artist who sketches an ideal picture without concerning himself with the fact whether individual characteristic features of imaginative picture are to be found anywhere or not? In the same way, Plato never thought of the possibility of the institutions of his ideal state, being capable of ever becoming a reality. He never thought of the impracticability of this idea concerning his ideal state.
Plato built his state on the analogy of an individual organism. He believed that the virtues of an individual and of the state were identical. He was of the view that an individual presented almost the same features and qualities on a smaller scale as society on a bigger scale.
Features of an Ideal State
1.Rule of Philosophy
Plato was of the view that in an ideal state the philosopher-ruler should be prominent. He should has a broaden vision of unity of knowledge. Philosopher-kings are immune from the provisions of law and public opinion.
2.No unqualified absolutism
Though, neither, there is any restraint of law nor of public opinion over philosopher-rulers but that is not an unqualified absolutism. It is not all despotism, because rule of philosophy is not free from the basic articles of the constitution.
3.Control over the education system
Philosopher ruler should control the education system in an ideal state.
4.Justice in ideal state
Justice is the main feature of Plato’s Republic and it is also present in his ideal state. Justice is the bond which binds every member of society together. It forms a harmonious union of individuals.
5.Censorship of art and literature
In ideal state, there should be a complete censorship of art and literature. It is necessary so that nothing immoral things might falls into the hands of the young individuals.
6.System of Communism
Plato was of the view that guardian class should live under the system of communism of property and family. The rulers and soldiers do not possess any property of their own.
7.Equality among men and women
According to Plato, equal opportunities should be given to both men and women for their economic, social, intellectual and political uplift. We can say that Plato was the first feminist of his time.
8.Principle of Functional Specialization
Plato was of the view that due to multiple wants, an individual could not fulfill all his desires by himself alone due to lack of capacity. Thus co-operation among individuals should be necessary to satisfy their mutual desires. Some people are specialized in performing some certain tasks.
Criticism
1.Plato built his ideal state on the analogy of individual and this identification leads to confusion. He failed to distinguish ethics from politics. His ideal state is based not merely on analogy but almost identification between the individual and the state, which is quite wrong.
2.Plato fails to condemn the institution of slavery and regard it as fundamental evil.
3.Plato’s system of communism of women and temporary marriage is detestable and unethical.
4.Plato is a moralist rather than a political idealist. His assumption that the state should control the entire lives of its citizens is false and contrary to human liberty.
5.By the system of functional specialization, Plato tends to dwarf the personality of the individual. There is no possibility of any full development of human personality in his ideal state.
6.Plato completely ignores the lower class in his ideal state which forms the great bulk of population. Such negligence may divide the society into two hostile groups.
Comparison between Plato and Aristotle
Aristotle, the favorite and most brilliant pupil of Plato, is more conscious of his differences than of the points of agreement with him. The differences which these giants of philosophy were not the outcome of any grudge or ill-will, but reflected their own way of solving the existing problems of their state.
Similarities
1.Both upheld slavery and justified its continuation in true spirit of Greek ideals. Each regarded slaves as an indispensable part of the community for the manual performance and overall development progress of the state.
2.Both despised foreigners and regarded races other than Greeks fit for subjection and bondage and as mentally inferior to the Greeks.
3.Both condemned democracy and wanted to replace it with some sort of constitutional or ideal polity while Plato echoed in condemning democracy, as “What could have been more ridiculous than this mob-led, passion-ridden democracy, this government by a debating society, a mobocracy.” On the other hand Aristotle was of the view that “the people are not capable of self-government.”
4.Both wanted to impose limitations on citizenship. Both taught that all manual labor should be done by slaves or non-citizens.
5.Both opposed the views of Sophists that the state came into birth for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life. It is this conviction which makes Aristotle a true Platonist.
6.Aristotle’s “Political” is no less a manual for statesman than the “Republic” of Plato.
Differences
1.While Plato draws conclusion through the use of allusion and analogy, Aristotle strikes at the very point with definite and clear-cut dogmas and doctrine.
2.While Plato believes in the abstract notions of justice, virtue and idea. Aristotle judges the speculative fundamentals on the basis of exact comparison and deduces a thought presentable and acceptable even in modern civilization.
3.Where Plato is visionary, imaginative and utopian, Aristotle is logical, realist and scientific in his approach of propounding theories.
4.If Plato believes in the doctrine that the reality of a material thing lies in its idea not in its form. Aristotle believes that reality in the concrete manifestation of a thing, and not in its supposed inherent idea.
5. Plato believed in the phenomenon of unity through uniformity. On the other hand Aristotle was of the view that unity could be achieved through diversity in universe and men.
6. Plato inseparably mixed ethics and politics. He subordinated political theories to ethical considerations. In Aristotle it was quite the reverse. Ethics and politics were not only separated, but the former was made to sub serve the later.
7. Plato was the propounder of new philosophy; Aristotle was a systemiser of already existing knowledge, and made freshly streamlining and fascinating by his powerful influential and charming style for practical adoption for state functions.
“Plato seeks a superman who will create a state as good as ought to be. Aristotle seeks a super science will create a state as good as can be. Thus, all who believe in new worlds for old are disciples of Plato, all who believe in old worlds made new by the toilsome use of science are disciples of Aristotle.” (Maxey)
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